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Table 2 Summary of the studies included in the review

From: Illicit drug use in university students in the UK and Ireland: a PRISMA-guided scoping review

Author

Location

Design

Method

N

% Undergraduate

Course

Response rate

% female

Mean age (range)

Substances examined

Prevalence

Knowledge/ Attitudes / Motivation

Associated factors

Consequences

Supply

Hindmarch 1970 [75]

1 uni England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

153

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

Cannabis, heroin, LSD, amphetamines, other

 

X

X

  

McKay 1973 [76]

1 uni Scotland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

749 (1971) 487 (1972)

78

73

Medical students

95.3 (1971) 80.6 (1972)

NR

NR

Marijuana, hashish, amphetamines, LSD, heroin, cocaine, barbiturates, glue, others

X

 

X

  

Einstein 1975 [77]

1 uni England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Postal survey

300

NR

NR

33

NR

NR

Cannabis

X

 

X

  

Hindmarch 1975 [27]

1 uni England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Postal survey

300

NR

NR

33

NR

NR

Cannabis

 

X

   

Parfrey 1975 [33]

I uni Ireland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Postal survey

444

100

Not limited

97

40

NR

Marijuana, LSD, ‘barbiturates or amphetamines’, ‘heroin or some hard drug’

X

 

X

 

X

Somekh 1976 [78]

6 unis England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

1113

100

Not limited

65

NR

20.9

Any drugs other than given by your doctor

X

 

X

  

Herity 1977 [79]

1 uni Ireland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

765

NR

Medical students

98.6

33.3

NR

Pot, hashish, amphetamines, LSD, heroin, cocaine, barbiturates, glue, others

X

 

X

  

Golding 1987 [45]

NR

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

360

100 (Med students)NR (non-MS)

Medical and Non-medical (arts, science, agriculture)

84 (MS) 60 (non-MS)

NR

20.2

Cannabis and other drugs

X

 

X

  

Engs 1987 [80]

4 colleges Scotland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

209

NR

Nursing students

100

89

NR

Marijuana, analgesics & other drugs

X

 

X

  

Ghodse 1994 [81]

13 medical schools (Eng, Scot, Wales)

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Postal survey

1268

NR

Medical students

68

48

21.4 (17–35)

Cannabis, tranquillisers, cocaine, opiates, hallucinogens, barbiturates, amphetamines, ‘other drugs not taken under medical supervision’

X

    

Ashton 1995 [43]

1 uni England

Quantitative—2 Cross-sectional studies (2 cohort samples collected a year apart)

In-person

186

100

Medical students

98.9

58.6

20.4

Cannabis, amphetamine, amyl nitrite, LSD, mescaline, ecstasy, magic mushrooms, cocaine, opioids, solvents/gas/glue

X

 

X

  

Webb 1996 [49]

10 unis (Eng, Scot, Wales)

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

3075

100

Specified—mixture

Almost 100%

47

20.9 (18–65)

Cannabis, LSD, amphetamines, cocaine/crack, ecstasy, magic mushrooms, amyl nitrate, barbiturates, heroin/morphine/opium, steroids, other drugs

X

X

X

  

Webb 1997 [51]

10 unis (Eng, Scot)

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

3699

100

Specified—mixture

Almost 100%

48.3

NR

Cannabis, LSD, amphetamines, cocaine/crack, ecstasy, magic mushrooms, amyl nitrate, barbiturates, heroin/morphine/opium, steroids, other drugs

X

 

X

  

Conner 1998 [65]

England – unclear no. of unis

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

186

NR

Not specified

62

58

NR (19–25)

Ecstasy

X

X

X

  

Webb 1998 [50]

7 universities in GB

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

785

100

Medical students

Almost 100%

55.3

20

Cannabis, LSD, amphetamines, cocaine/crack, ecstasy, magic mushrooms, amyl nitrate, barbiturates, heroin/morphine/opium, steroids, other drugs

X

X

X

  

Sell 1998 [29]

1 uni England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Postal survey

318

NR

NR

76

44

NR

Cannabis, LSD, Magic mushroom, Amphetamine, Ecstasy, Solvent/poppers, Cocaine, Sedatives, Crack cocaine, Heroin

X

X

  

X

Makhoul 1998 [28]

1 uni in England

Quantitative—cross-sectional

In-person

348

100

9 courses: psychology, law, computer studies, building surveying & housing studies, business studies, government, fashion, marketing, sociology

‘negligible'

64.1

23.3

Cannabis, amphetamines, hallucinogens (e.g. LSD), ecstasy, magic mushrooms, nitrites, cocaine, non-Px tranquilisers, heroin and opium derivatives, solvents, others

X

X

   

Engs 1999 [82]

5 unis in Scotland

Quantitative: Cross sectional

In-person

4065

100

Not limited

92.2

76.7

21.6

Cannabis, amphetamines, cocaine, LSD, ecstasy, heroin

X

 

X

  

Newbury-Birch 2000 [48]

1 uni in England

Quantitative: Cross sectional

In-person

194

100

Medical students

94.6

67

18.8

(17–39)

Cannabis, LSD, amphetamines, cocaine/crack, ecstasy, magic mushrooms, amyl nitrate, barbiturates, heroin/morphine/opium, steroids, other drugs

X

 

X

  

Pickard 2000 [83]

1 uni in England

Quantitative: Cross sectional

In-person

136

100

Medical students

80.5

66.2

NR

Cannabis, amphetamines, LSD, ecstasy, amyl/butyl nitrate, magic mushrooms

X

    

Underwood 2000 [84]

Not reported

Quantitative: cross-sectional

In-person

200

100

Dental students

75.8

NR

NR

Cannabis, amphetamines, amyl nitrate, ecstasy, magic mushrooms, LSD, cocaine, inhalants

X

    

Newbury-Birch 2001 [47]

1 uni in England

Quantitative: longitudinal

In-person

122 (1995), 114 (1998)

100

Medical students

80.3% (1995)

79.7

(1998)

65.6% (1995) 66.7% (1998)

NR

Cannabis, LSD, amphetamines, cocaine/crack, ecstasy, magic mushrooms, amyl nitrate, barbiturates, heroin/morphine/opium, steroids, other drugs

X

 

X

  

McMillan 2002 [30]

1 uni in England

Quantitative: longitudinal

In-person

380

100

Not limited

63

54.2

NR

(19–53)

Amphetamine, cannabis, LSD, ecstasy

X

X

   

Newbury-Birch 2002 [46]

1 uni in England

Quantitative: longitudinal

In-person

47 (2nd yr 1995)

53 (final yr 1998)

100

Dental students

71.2% (1995)

80.3% (1998)

66% (1995) 49.1% (1998)

NR

Cannabis, LSD, amphetamines, cocaine/crack, ecstasy, magic mushrooms, amyl nitrate, barbiturates, heroin/morphine/opium, steroids, other drugs

X

 

X

  

Butler 2004 [85]

1 uni in England

Quantitative: Cross sectional

In-person

254

100

Psychology

99.2

78.7%

22.3 (F)

21.5 (M)

Cannabis, amphetamine, cocaine, LSD, magic mushrooms, opiates, amyl nitrate, other

X

 

X

  

Terry 2005 [41]

2 unis in England

Mixed methods: cross-sectional with results informing qualitative

In-person

176

NR

Science

N/A

43.4%

43.5%

Cannabis and ‘other illicit drugs’

 

X

 

X

 

Barber 2006[86]

1 UK University

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

346

NR

Dental (n = 218) Law (n = 128) students

78.1

54% dental, 59% law

21.4 dental, 20.4 law

Cannabis, ecstasy, amphetamines, ‘other class A drugs’, ‘other class B and class C drugs’

X

 

X

  

Boland 2006 [87]

1 uni Ireland

Quantitative -longitudinal

In-person

1824

NR

Medical students

98.6 (1973) 95.6 (1990) 94.2 (2002)

33.3 (1973) 51.9 (1990) 59% (2002)

NR

‘Drugs for other than medical reasons’

X

 

X

  

Hammersley 2006 [39]

 > 1 uni England

Qualitative-structured interviews

In-person

176

NR

NR

N/A

43

22

Cannabis

   

X

 

Vivancos 2008 [88]

1 uni England

Quantitative-prospective cohort

Online survey

827

NR

not limited

6

68

NR

Cannabis, opiates,

amphetamines, crack, cocaine, benzodiazepines, solvents, other

X

 

X

  

Bartholomew 2010 [38]

 > 1 uni England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

143

100

Not specified

NR

58.9

18–24

Cannabis

   

X

 

Roberts 2010 [89]

2 unis England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

360

90

Not limited

65

70

21.1 (M)

24.3 (F)

Magic mushrooms, ecstasy, LSD, amphetamines, cannabis, tranquilizers, cocaine, heroin, solvents, injected drugs (any type)

  

X

  

Underwood 2010 [90]

1 English uni

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

265

100

Dental students

69

Not reported

NR

Cannabis, amphetamines, amyl nitrate, ecstasy, magic mushrooms, LSD, cocaine, inhalants, steroids

X

 

X

  

Cahill 2010 [91]

1 uni Ireland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

181

NR

Not specified

91.4

75.9

NR

Cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin, crystal meth, drugs by injection

X

    

Fisk 2011 [42]

2 unis England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Secondary data analysis

159

NR

NR

NR

49.7

21.6

Ecstasy, amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine

   

X

 

Skinner 2011 [40]

1 uni Ireland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

1049

NR

Not limited

NR

82

21.2

(17–54)

Cannabis, ecstasy, cocaine,

LSD, magic mushrooms, heroin

X

  

X

 

Houghton 2011 [92]

1 uni Ireland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

760

NR

NR

76

48

22.2 (17–63)

Tranquillisers ± prescription, amphetamine, LSD, cocaine, heroin, ecstasy, drugs by injection, solvents, magic mushrooms, cannabis

X

    

Deasy 2014 [93]

1 uni Ireland

Mixed methods—cross-sectional with results informing semi-structured interviews

In-person

1030 (survey)

59 (interview)

NR

Teacher education and nursing/midwifery

71

54.6

NR

Cannabis

X

X

X

  

Pedersen 2014 [31]

1 uni UK

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

473

100

Social Sciences

NR

NR

NR

Cannabis

X

X

   

Bennett 2014 [37]

South Wales

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Online survey

2181

100

Not limited

33

59

NR

Cannabis, ecstasy, LSD, magic mushrooms, amphetamine, cocaine, ketamine, heroin, crack, methamphetamine, mephedrone, GBL/GHB, Spice, BZP

X

  

X

 

El Ansari 2015 [15]

7 unis England, Wales, NI

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

3706

NR

Random selection

80

77.9

24.9

‘Illicit substance’ (includes ecstasy, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, crack, LSD, amphetamines)

X

 

X

  

Deniozou 2015 [94]

1 uni Scotland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Online survey

1189

84

Not limited

15

68

NR

Ecstasy, cannabis, cocaine,

Ketamine, magic mushroom,

LSD, benzodiazepines, amyl nitrate, heroin, amphetamines, crack, methamphetamine, GHB, steroids, 2CB, mephedrone, prescribed medication, NPS, other

X

    

Coomber 2016 [35]

1 uni NR

Qualitative—semi-structured interviews

N/A

30

100

including but not limited to: sociology, business studies and geology

N/A

NR

NR

Cocaine, ecstasy, cannabis,

Ketamine, diazepam, mushrooms, mephedrone

    

X

Holt 2016 [95]

1 uni NR

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Online survey

3683

NR

not limited

11.5

68.1

NR

Not fully reported but includes cannabis, ecstasy, cocaine, amyl nitrate, nitrous oxide, DMT, solvents, injecting drug use

X

    

Zvauyu 2017 [96]

1 uni England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Paper – drop off

410

41.4

Graduate entry (GE) and undergraduate medical students

49.1

GE 56.3

UG 68.8

GE: 22–26

UG: 18–21

‘Drug use’

 

X

   

Bennett 2018 [36]

7 unis in Wales

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Online survey

7855

NR

Not limited

7.8

62.3

NR

Cannabis, ecstasy, LSD, magic mushrooms, amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine powder, crack cocaine, heroin, and tranquilizers

   

X

 

Patton 2018 [16]

1 uni in England

Mixed methods—cross sectional with quotes from participants

In-person and online

512

91

Social sciences (sociology, psychology, criminology, politics, international relations)

41.2

62

NR

Amphetamine, amyl nitrate, cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, ketamine, LSD, heroin, methadone, crack, methamphetamine, modafinil, Adderall, Ritalin, dexedrine, ephedrine, BZP, khat, mephedrone, Spice, GBL/GHB, other new psychoactive

Substances

X

X

  

X

Bogowicz 2018 [44]

1 uni in England

Quantitative—Cross sectional

In-person

1242

NR

Medical and law students

78.8

51.6

NR

Amphetamines, anabolic steroids, benzodiazepines or Z-drugs, cannabis, cathinones, cocaine, ecstasy, GBL/GHB, ketamine, LSD, mushrooms, nitrous oxide, opioids, piperazines, synthetic cannabinoids

X

 

X

  

Holloway 2018 [97]

7 unis in Wales

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Online survey

7855

NR

All students

7.8

62.3

NR

Cannabis, ecstasy, LSD, magic mushrooms, amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine powder, crack cocaine, heroin, and tranquilizers

X

 

X

  

Bickerdike 2019 [98]

1 uni in Ireland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Online survey

2267

90.2

Not limited

20.1

51.7

NR

Amphetamine, cocaine, ecstasy/MDMA, ‘head shop products’, heroin, LSD, magic mushrooms, solvents, tranquilisers, drugs by injection

X

    

Bennett 2019 [34]

7 unis in Wales

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Online survey

1877

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

Cannabis, ecstasy, LSD, magic mushrooms, amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine powder, crack cocaine, heroin, and tranquilizers

    

X

Moyle 2019 [9]

1 uni in England

Qualitative—semi-structured interviews

NA

30

100

Not limited

NA

30

NR (18–37)

Cocaine, ecstasy, cannabis,

Ketamine, diazepam, mushrooms, mephedrone

    

X

Murphy 2019 [99]

Various unis in Ireland

Quantitative—Cross sectional

Online survey

5672

95.1

Not limited

NR

48.7

21.6

‘Non-prescribed/recreational’

X

 

X

  

Lane 2020 [100]

1 uni in Ireland

Qualitative—free-text survey

NA

161

59.6

Medical students

NA

54.6

24.8 (22–42)

‘Drugs’—not specified

 

X

   
  1. NR Not reported