Table 1 Populations of Interest, Scales Used, and Definitions Cited
Citation number | STUDY: Authors, year; (n); Country | Youth | Individuals in treatment/recovery | Active drug users (Majority >60%) | Other information about populations of study | Resilience Scales Used (if any) | Definitions Cited (if any) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[102] | Alavijeh et al., 2016; (n = 70); Iran | • | Adult men in a recovery program trial | Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) | |||
[104] | Amandru et al., 2014; (n = 200); Uganda | • | Students (14–23 years) | Wagnild & Young Resilience Scale (RS) | Resilience is “a strength that can assist people in positive life adaptation” (Masten and Reed, 2005). | ||
[123] | Andreas et al., 2016; (n = 19,303); Norway | • | Middle- & high-school students (mean age 15.4) | ||||
[146] | Barbieri et al., 2016; (n = 98); Italy | • | Adult therapeutic community clients | Campbell-Sills & Stein Scale - for resilience at work | Resilience has to do with adversity and positive adaptation (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2013). Resilience comes into play not only in overcoming adversity, conflict, or failure, but also in instances of positive events such as work commitments that require the assumption of new responsibilities. | ||
[157] | Becerra & Castillo 2011; (n = 980); Mexico | • | Students (15–22 years) | The ecological risk and resiliency theory examines the relationship between risk and protective factors on individuals within their social contexts (Bogenschneider, 1996; Fraser & Galinsky, 1997; Marsiglia & Waller, 2002). | |||
[126] | Benda et al., 2003; (n = 600); US | • | Homeless Vietnam veterans | Specialized scale developed by researchers (5 items)b | |||
[173] | Benda et al., 2005; (n = 625); US | • | Homeless Vietnam veterans | Wagnild & Young Resilience Scale | |||
[79] | Bowland 2015; (n = 25); US | Women with histories of trauma | Resilience is defined as “the process of effectively negotiating, adapting to, or managing significant sources of stress or trauma” (Windle 2011, p. 163). Researchers should analyze multiple levels of functioning, including the individual, their life, and their environment, using a human ecology framework. | ||||
[148] | Bradshaw et al., 2013; (n = 149); US | • | Residential treatment facility participants | Sinclair & Wallston – Brief Resilience Coping Scale | Resilience is an “inner state or intrinsic quality of the human psyche” (Burke, 2006) relevant to the addiction recovery process (Harris et al., 2011). It is the ability to experience pain and difficulty and “snap back” toward an “active process of self-righting and growth” (Higgins, 1994). Resiliency is more than mere belief; it involves self-efficacy and coping skills in the presence of “high-risk” stress and is considered “the core of recovery” (Harris et al., 2011, p. 270). | ||
[140] | Brents et al., 2015; (n = 95); US | Adults with childhood experiences of trauma | |||||
[87] | Brothers 2016; (n = 30); US | • | Secondary syringe exchangers | Resilience is defined as “the process of harnessing key resources to sustain well-being” (Panter-Brick, 2014, p. 432). | |||
[141] | Brown & Waite 2005; (n = 21; n = 15); US | • | Resilience education program focus groups with youth & adults | Resiliency factors are defined as strategies used by youth that deter their high-risk behaviors. | |||
[84] | Burnett Jr. et al., 2016; (n = 278); US | • | University students (mean age 22) | Wagnild & Young Resilience Scale | Resilience is “a short-term or long-term coping process that has been learned through gradual exposure to progressive challenges and stressors that helps an individual to ‘bounce-back’ with adaptive success” (Richardson, Neiger, Jensen, and Kumpfer, 1990). Resilience is “the ability to maintain relatively stable, healthy levels of psychological and physical functioning”, after exposure to a loss, violence or a life-threatening event (Bonanno, 2004). | ||
[122] | Buttram et al., 2014; (n = 562); US See also Buttram et al., 2014 [213] | • | Sex workers | Pearlin Mastery Scale – self-mastery as proxy | Resilience as measured by personal mastery. Personal mastery (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978) measures the extent to which an individual believes life events or circumstances are under one’s own control. | ||
[172] | Carrico et al., 2015; (n = 21); US | • | Men who have sex with men (MSM) | Resilience encompasses the social and psychological resources that assist MSM in effectively coping with social adversity (Herrick, Stall, Goldhammer, Egan, and Mayer, 2014). | |||
[81] | Chang et al., 2003; (n = 820); US | • | Incarcerated youth (12–19 years) | Resilience is defined as the ability to be unaffected by, recover from, or acquire strength from adverse life experiences (Carbonell, Reinherz, & Giaconia, 1998). Resilience factors are protective mechanisms that guard those at risk from the effects of adverse life experiences (Rutter, 1987). | |||
[124] | Christiansen & Evans 2005; (n = 992); US | • | 8th grade students in at-risk urban and rural schools | Resiliency research seeks to discover why some individuals exposed to risk are able to avoid the negative consequences associated with risk exposure (Zimmerman & Arunkumar, 1994). Resiliency theory revolves around understanding the relationships among risk, protective, and outcome variables. | |||
[99] | Cuomo et al., 2008; (n = 312 v. n = 591); Italy | Incarcerated men | Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) | ||||
[118] | Currie et al., 2013; (n = 318); Canada | • | Aboriginal adults with illicit & prescription drug problems | Resilience is active in high risk producing conditions, acting to reduce the likelihood of a negative outcome (Johnson et al., 2011; Masten, 2001). | |||
[107] | Daining & DePanfilis 2007; (n = 100); US | • | Foster youth (18+ years) | Resilience is defined as a developmental course characteristic of healthy adjustment despite the circumstance of considerable hardship (Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker, 2000). | |||
[82] | Davis & Spillman 2011; (n = 197); US | • | University students (18–44 years) | Specialized scale developed by researchers | Resilience is a “process whereby people bounce back from adversity and go on with their lives. It is a dynamic process highly influenced by protective factors.” (Dyer and McGuinness, 1996, p.276) | ||
[143] | Dell et al., 2005; Canada | • | • | Aboriginals - Hypothetical model/case studies | Resilience is defined as “the extent to which someone can recover from adversity” and describes an individual’s ability to manage or cope with significant adversity or stress in effective ways (Jennison and Johnson, 1997). | ||
[158] | Draper et al., 2015; (n = 210); Australia | Older adults (60+) in community health setting | CD-RISC 2 (short) | ||||
[149] | Dufour & Nadeau 2001; (n = 20 v. n = 20); Canada | Adult women sexually abused during childhood | Resiliency is a person’s ability to return to a previous or even a superior level of adjustment after having experienced a stressful event (Steinhauer, 1998). | ||||
[128] | Duque et al., 2013; (n = 1780); Colombia | • | Youth (14–26 years) with risk experiences | Resilience is dynamic process molded by culture, where the following factors intervene: making a decision about personal development; what the young person makes of the goods, services, and formal and informal opportunities that are in their reach; and the availability of these (Ungar, 2005). | |||
[86] | Eisen et al., 2014; (n = 512); US | Veterans returning home from Iraq & Afghanistan | Bartone Dispositional Resilience (Hardiness) to Stress Scale | Resilience is the ability of adults who are exposed to highly stressful events, such as the violent, life threatening situations encountered in combat, to maintain healthy psychological and physical functioning (Bonanno, 2004). | |||
[96] | Fadardi et al., 2010; (n = 120); Iran | • | University students (mean age 21.5) | Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) | Resilience is defined as the ability to resist stress and bounce back to normal homeostasis state (Werner, 1986; 2004). | ||
[121] | Gilliard-Matthews et al., 2016; (n = 309); US | • | Inner-city African-American and Latino adolescents (13–20 years) | Resiliency theory argues that protective factors in an individual’s social and physical environment aid in their overcoming adverse situations (Egeland, Carlson, and Sroufe 1993; Kaplan et al. 1996). The resiliency process is a complex interconnected system of risks, assets, and resources (Ostaszewski and Zimmerman 2006). | |||
[113] | Gralinski-Bakker et al., 2004; (n = 118); US | • | Formerly institutionalized young adults | California Q-Sort on Ego-Resiliency | Resilience has been inferred on the basis of successful adaptation among individuals who faced challenging or threatening circumstances (Luthar et al., 2000; Masten, 2001; Masten et al., 1990; Rutter, 1987). Resilience is empirically defined “in terms of individual outcome profiles encompassing early adult psychosocial development, relationship functioning, and social competence” (Hauser, 1999). | ||
[103] | Green et al., 2014; (n = 497); US | Veterans who served in Iraq | Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) | Resilience is defined as the capacity to tolerate the effects of trauma exposure or successfully manage following a challenge or setback (Connor and Davidson, 2003). Resilience has been described as a response to situational demands, including the ability to recover from negative and stressful experiences and find positive meaning in seemingly adverse situations setback (Connor and Davidson, 2003; Luthar, Cicchetti and Becker, 2000). | |||
[129] | Griffin et al., 2009; (n = 178); US | • | Resilience school programs for middle school youth | Resiliency can be defined as a process of overcoming or averting negative outcomes through the interaction of protective factors and risk factors (Rew and Horner, 2003; Spitler, Kemper, and Parker 2002). | |||
[108] | Hammersley et al., 2015; (n = 55); UK | • | Recovering IDUs with experiences of childhood trauma | Resilience explains why some severely traumatised children recover (Cyrulnik, 2009; Werner, 1993). Resilience is created in part by the interaction between the presence of positive social support in the child’s life, and by the child’s ability to elicit support from adults (especially at school). | |||
[142] | Harris et al., 2011; US | • | Hypothetical model/case studies | Resilience is “the community’s inherent capacity, hope, and faith to withstand major trauma, overcome adversity, and to prevail, with increased resources, competence, and connectedness” (Landua, 2007, p. 352). Family resilience is defined as “the path a family follows as it adapts and prospers in the face of stress, both in the present and over time” (Hawley and DeHaan, 1996, p. 293). | |||
[78] | Hills et al., 2016; (n = 10); South Africa | • | Street youth (14–18 years) | “In the context of exposure to significant adversity, whether psychological, environmental, or both, resilience is both the capacity of individuals to navigate their way to health-sustaining resources, including opportunities to experience feelings of well-being, and a condition of the individual family, community and culture to provide these health resources and experiences in culturally meaningful ways” (Ungar, 2008, p. 225). | |||
[105] | Hodder et al., 2016; (n = 10,092); Australia | • | Students (11–17 years) | The Resilience & Youth Development Module of the California Healthy Kids Survey - protective factors | |||
[112] | Hollen et al., 2013; (n = 243); US | • | Young cancer survivors (14–19 years) | Risk motivation is viewed as a surrogate for resiliency. | |||
[114] | Hopwood & Treolar 2008; (n = 8); Australia | • | Hep C treatment clients | Resilience is defined as ‘a class of phenomena characterised by good outcomes in spite of serious threats to adaptation or development’ (Masten, 2001, p. 228). ‘Resilient coping’ is defined as the ability of people to maintain relatively stable and healthy levels of psychological and physical functioning when confronted with a highly disruptive situation (Bonanno, 2004). | |||
[169] | Javdani & Allen 2016; (n = 52); US | • | Juvenile justice system involved girls (13–18 years) | Wagnild & Young Resilience Scale (short RS-14) | |||
[76] | Jones 2012; (n = 97); US | • | Foster youth (17+ years) transitioning out of care | Resilience is the ability to make positive adaptations to life’s circumstances despite exposure to severe adversity, and multitude of risk (Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker, 2000) | |||
[125] | Kassis et al., 2013; (n = 5149); Austria, Germany, Slovenia, and Spain | • | Middle school students (mean age 14.5) with history of family violence | Resilience as a holistic concept is better understood if risks are modeled not only on individual factors but also on contextual factors like family and school (Liebenberg and Ungar, 2009; Aisenberg and Herrenkohl, 2008). | |||
[182] | Kidd & Shahar 2008; (n = 208); US & Canada | • | Homeless youth (14–24 years) | Resilience can be understood as an ability to mobilize personal and social resources to protect against risks (Rew & Horner, 2003). | |||
[170] | Kurtz et al., 2013; (n = 515); US | • | • | An intervention for substance-using men who have sex with men | Resilience focuses on assets and resources to overcome risk (Fergus and Zimmerman, 2005). | ||
[85] | LaFromboise et al., 2006; (n = 212); US | • | Aboriginal youth (10–15 years) | Resilience is conceptualized as a protective mechanism that modifies an individual’s response to risk situations and operates at critical points during one’s life (Newcomb, 1992). | |||
[168] | Levey et al., 2016; (n = 75); Liberia | • | Youth in post-conflict Liberia (13–18 years) | Resilience is defined as evidence of adaptive functioning and psychological health. | |||
[109] | Longman-Mills et al., 2013; (n = 2294); Colombia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama, Uruguay | • | University students with experiences of child abuse | Resilience as the ability to help individuals cope with adversity. Resilience after child maltreatment is aided by biological, social, environmental and psychological factors (Tonmyr, Wekerle, Zangeneh, and Fallon, 2011). | |||
[135] | Luthar & Barkin 2012; (n = 827); US | • | Affluent high school youth (11th & 12th grade) | ||||
[174] | Markson et al., 2015; (n = 39); UK | Incarcerated men and hardships of reintegration | Resilience is a complex construct (e.g. Cicchetti, 2010; Luthar et al., 2000; Masten, 2007; Rutter, 2012) that covers a ‘reduced vulnerability to environmental risk experiences, the overcoming of a stress or adversity or a relatively good outcome despite risk experiences’ (Rutter, 2012: 336). | ||||
[119] | Marsiglia et al., 2002; (n = 2125, qualitative n = 60); US | • | Latino/a Urban Adolescents (9–18 years) | Resiliency is measured by the degree to which people (or communities) are productive and healthy despite hardships, traumas, and obstacles in their environmental (Bogenschneider, 1996). | |||
[97] | Martin et al., 2014; (n = 1149); South Africa | • | High school students with childhood trauma experiences (mean age 16.2) | Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) | |||
[132] | McGloin & Widom 2001; (n = 676); US | Adults with childhood abuse/neglect experiences | Resilience as a positive end of adaptation in at-risk samples (Rutter, 1987, 1990). Resilience as good outcomes in spite of high risk, sustained competence under stress; and recovery from trauma (Fraser 1999, Master 1994; Masten 1990). | ||||
[150] | McKnight & Loper 2002; (n = 355); US | • | Adolescent girls (10–19 years) at risk for delinquency | ‘Resilience’ is generally defined as successful coping with or overcoming risk and adversity, the development of competence in the face of severe stress and hardship, and success in developmental tasks or meeting societal expectations, as reflected in overt, behavioural indices such as school grades and ratings by teachers, peers and parents (Doll and Lyon, 1998; Luthar et al., 1993). | |||
[130] | Moon et al., 2000; (n = 609); US | • | 7th grade students | Resiliency perspective focuses on enhancing those factors thought to protect against or reduce substance use (Norman, 1995). | |||
[181] | Morse et al., 2015; (n = 59); UK | • | Art program for addiction recovery service users | ||||
[110] | O’Donnell et al., 2002; (n = 2600); US | • | Students (6th, 8th, 10th grade) exposed to community violence | Resilience defined as the ability to cope effectively with stress and to exhibit an unusual degree of psychological strength for one’s age and set of circumstances Werner, 1984). The definition has been expanded in newer studies to include successful coping in specific domains, including both behavioural and emotional arenas (Luthar 1991, 1993; Luthar and Zigler 1991). | |||
[151] | Okamoto et al., 2009; (n = 47); US | • | Rural native Hawaiian students (mean age 12.2) | Understand resilience as an outcome of negotiations between individuals and his or her environment (Ungar, 2004). Resilience is socially constructed, contextually specific, and defined by individuals and their social reference group (Ungar, 2004). | |||
[152] | Ostaszewski & Zimmerman 2006; (n = 850); US | • | Urban 9th grade students | Resiliency theory emphasizes the role of promotive factors among children growing up in adverse environments, and provides a framework for understanding why some children and adolescents who are exposed to high risk do not develop negative health and social outcomes (Garmezy, 1985; Luthar; 1991; Rutter, 1987). | |||
[180] | Pardini et al., 2000; (n = 236); US | • | Adults in recovery from drug and alcohol addiction | Bartone Dispositional Resilience (Hardiness) to Stress Scale | |||
[136] | Patwary et al., 2012; (n = 25); Bangladesh | • | a | Male street youth (20–25 years) | Street competencies can be seen as a positive adaptation to considerable hardships among street people (Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker, 2000) and terms such as flexibility and resilience may be used to describe homeless youths who are surviving on the street (D’Abreu et al. 1999; Williams et al. 2001). | ||
[171] | Pearce et al., 2015; (n = 191); Canada | • | Aboriginal people who use drugs (mean age 28.9) | Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) | The most widely accepted definition of resilience in health sciences is positive adaptation despite adversity (Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker, 2000). A small but growing body of research in Canada has moved beyond individualistic, linear, and western notions of resilience to identify ways in which culture, language, and spirituality buffer adversity and create “cultural resilience” among Indigenous peoples (Fleming and Ledogar, 2008). | ||
[153] | Perkins & Jones 2004; (n = 16,313); US | • | Adolescents students (12–17 years) | Resilient people are well-adapted individuals in spite of serious stressors in their lives (Luthar, 1991; Masten, 2001). Human adaptation or competence is composed of the interplay between the context/ecology and the developing organism (Lerner, 1995; Schneirla, 1957). | |||
[117] | Rosenblum et al., 2005; (n = 77); US | • | Adolescents (11–15 years) with HIV+ parent | Resiliency is a broad domain that has been variously defined (Greene, 2002; Maluccio, 2002), e.g., capabilities, assets, and positive attributes (Saleebey, 2002); a general frame of reference that guides human beings in coping with environmental challenges (Richman and Bowen, 1997); capacity to rebound from adversity strengthened and more resourceful (Walsh, 1998); and efforts to achieve good developmental outcomes and sustained competence despite the presence of stress and risk (Masten et al., 1990; Werner, 1995). | |||
[77] | Shpiegel 2015; (n = 351); US | • | Foster youth (17+ years) | Most scholars currently define resilience as a “pattern of positive adaptation in the context of significant risk or adversity” (Masten and Powell 2003, p. 4). The presence of positive adaptation is generally indicated by (1) achievement of “stage-salient developmental tasks”, or expectations for individual behavior at a specific age; and (2) avoidance of significant psychopathology (Luthar 2006). | |||
[183] | Sirikantraporn et al., 2012; (n = 68); US | • | IDUs (18+) | Planning abilities are one of the resilience characteristics of cognitive competence that help individuals achieve their planned goals (Kumpfer, 2002). Resilience development includes positive cognitive abilities that already exist or can be cultivated and strengthened to further increase safe injection practice, decrease risky behaviors, and reduce their chance of contracting HIV/HCV. | |||
[115] | Stajduhar et al., 2009; (n = 41); Canada | • | IDUs (and n = 45 service providers) | Resilience has been variously defined, but in general, represents a phenomenon involving both adequate and enhanced adaptation in the context of adversity (Roisman, 2005). Resilience includes successful adaptation following a period of maladaptation or developmental difficulty. Indeed, it encompasses not only recovery but includes harm reduction practices. | |||
[179] | Sutherland et al., 2009; (n = 128); US | • | Chemically dependent (CD) women in recovery vs. non CD women | Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) | Consistently the term resilience has been associated with the ability to recover from adversity. “Resilience describes a process whereby people bounce back from adversity and go on with their lives. It is a dynamic process highly influenced by protective factors” (Dyer and McGuinness, 1996, p. 276). | ||
[120] | Tiet et al., 2010; (n = 877); US See also Tiet & Huzinga 2002 [166] | • | Inner-city youth (longitudinal data set) | Resilience has been defined as having good outcomes despite the exposure to risk (Carlton et al. 2006; Masten 2001; Tiet and Huizinga 2002). | |||
[100] | Tlapek et al., 2016; (n = 237); US | • | Child welfare involved female youth (12–19 years) | Wagnild & Young Resilience Scale (short - RS-14) | Resilience was defined as intrapersonal characteristics such as perseverance and self-reliance that allow an individual to adapt to adversity (Wagnild & Young, 1993). | ||
[83] | Tomita 2013; (n = 94); Romania | Incarcerated drug using women | The process of, the ability to, or achieving successful adaptation in spite of challenging or threatening circumstances (Masten, Best and Garmezy, 1990). | ||||
[116] | Tozer et al., 2015; (n = 47); Canada | • | • | Street-involved youth (16–24 years) | Resiliency is perhaps best understood as a person’s ability to navigate and negotiate psychological, social, cultural, and physical resources that sustain their well-being in the context of exposure to significant adversity (Ungar, 2004). Resiliency is as a person’s ability to navigate and negotiate for resources to promote health; however, resources must be accessible and available in order for youth to obtain them (Ungar, 2004) | ||
[154] | Turner et al., 2007; (n = 711); US See also Hartman et al., 2009 [214] | • | High-risk youth (16–23 years) | In spite of the increased likelihood of engaging in delinquency, a significant proportion of individuals, considered to be “high-risk”, prove to be resilient; that is, they overcome the odds and develop into competent human beings (Farrington, Coid, Harnett et al., 2006; Laub and Sampson, 2001; Rutter and Giller, 1983; Smith, Lizotte, Thornberry, and Krohn, 1995; Werner, 1989a). | |||
[111] | Tyler et al., 2014; (n = 172); US | • | Homeless youth (19–26 years) | Resilience is generally viewed as having the capacity to overcome serious and cumulative developmental risks to avoid negative outcomes (Rak & Patterson, 1996). | |||
[147] | Veselska et al., 2009; (n = 3694); Slovakia | • | 8th and 9th grade students (11–17 years) | Specialized scale developed by researchersc | Resilience is defined as the process of, capacity for, or outcome of successful adaptation in the face of challenging or threatening circumstances. | ||
[101] | Wachter et al., 2015; (n = 191); US | • | Homeless youth (mean age 20.7) | Wagnild & Young Resilience Scale | Resilience is defined as the ability to have a good outcome despite threats to individual development (Masten 2001). | ||
[155] | Waller et al., 2003; (n = 32); US | • | American Indian youth (12–15 years) | Resilience is positive adaptation in response to adversity (Waller, 2002). Adversity is typically indexed by two categories of risk factors: (1) challenging life circumstances (e.g., racism, parental drug use, etc.) and (2) trauma (e.g., experiencing family or community violence, death of a parent, etc.; (Masten and Coatsworth, 1998). | |||
[98] | Wingo et al., 2014; (n = 2024); US | Adults with childhood experiences of trauma | CD-RISC 10 (short) | Resilience refers to the ability to cope adaptively with adversity or trauma (Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker 2000). It has been conceptualized as a complex and multidimensional construct with personal characteristics and environmental factors (Feder et al., 2009; Luthar Cicchetti, and Becker, 2000). | |||
[215] | Wong 2008; (n = 171); US | • | Middle and high school students (mean age 14.0) | Resilience is positive adaptation in spite of adverse circumstances (Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker, 2000; Masten, 2001). | |||
[80] | Yates & Grey 2012; (n = 164); US | • | Emancipated foster youth (17–21 years) | California Adult Q-Set | Resilience reflects a developmental process wherein the individual is able to utilize resources in and outside the self to negotiate current challenges adaptively and, by extension, to develop a foundation on which to rely when future challenges occur (Egeland, Carlson, and Sroufe, 1993; Yates, Egeland, and Sroufe, 2003) In contexts of prior or current adversity, resilience reflects multiform competence characterized by both the absence of psychopathology and the presence of adaptive capacities to negotiate age-salient issues effectively (Garmezy & Masten, 1986; Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000; Masten, 2001). |